It's your first C (or C++) program--it's not that long, and you're about tocompile it. You hit compile (or enter the build command) and wait. Yourcompiler spits out fifty lines of text. You pick out words like 'warning and'error'.

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General Error Messages

Does that mean it worked?

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Usually, the compilation process will begin with a series of compiler errors and warnings and, once you've fixed all of them, you'll then be faced with any linker errors. In turn, I'll first cover dealing with compiler errors and then with linker errors. Compiler Errors - Where do you start?

you wonder. You look for theresulting executable. Nothing. Damn, you think, I guess I haveto figure out what this all means..

The Types of Compilation Errors

First, let's distinguish between the types of errors: most compilers will givethree types of compile-time alerts: compiler warnings, compiler errors, andlinker errors.
Although you don't want to ignore them, compiler warnings aren't somethingsevere enough to actually keep your program from compiling. Usually, compilerwarnings are an indication that something might go wrong at runtime. How canthe compiler know this at all? You might be making a typical mistake that thecompiler knows about. A common example is using the assignment operator ('=')instead of the equality operator (') inside an if statement. Your compilermay also warn you about using variables that haven't been initialized and othersimilar mistakes. Generally, you can set the warning level of your compiler--Ilike to keep it at its highest level so that my compiler warnings don't turn into bugs in the running program ('runtime bugs'). How

Nevertheless, compiler warnings aren't going to stop you from getting yourprogram working (unless you tell your compiler to treat warnings as errors), sothey're probably a bit less frustrating than errors. Errors are conditionsthat prevent the compiler from completing the compilation of your files.Compiler errors are restricted to single source code files and are the resultof 'syntax errors'. What this really means is that you've done something thatthe compiler cannot understand. For instance, the statement 'for(;)' isn'tcorrect syntax because a for loop always needs to have three parts. Althoughthe compiler would have expected a semicolon, it would also have expected aconditional expression, so the error message you get might be something like'line 53, unexpected parenthesis ')'. Note, also, that compiler errors willalways include a line number at which the error was detected.
Even if you make it through the compilation process successfully, you may runinto linker errors. Linker errors, unlike compiler errors, have nothing to dowith incorrect syntax. Instead, linker errors are usually problems withfinding the definitions for functions, structs, classes, or global variablesthat were declared, but never actually defined, in a source code file.Generally, these errors will be of the form 'could not find definition for X'.
Usually, the compilation process will begin with a series of compilererrors and warnings and, once you've fixed all of them, you'll then be facedwith any linker errors. In turn, I'll first cover dealing with compiler errorsand then with linker errors.

Compiler Errors - Where do you start?

If you're faced with a list of fifty or sixty error and warning messages, itcan be daunting to even try to figure out where to start. The best place,though, is at the beginning--as in, the beginning of the list. In fact, youshould almost never start trying to fix errors from the end of the file to thebeginning for one simple reason: you don't know if they're actually errors!
A single error near the top of your program can cause a cascade of othercompiler errors because those lines might rely on something early in theprogram that the compiler couldn't understand. For instance, if you declare avariable with improper syntax, the compiler will complain about that syntaxerror and that it cannot find a declaration for the variable. Leavingoff a semicolon in the wrong place can result in an astonishing number oferrors. Things like this can happen because C and C++ syntax allows for thingslike declaring of a type immediately after the type definition:This would create a variable, myStruct, with room to store a struct containingtwo integers. Unfortunately, this means that if you leave off a semicolon, thecompiler will interpret it as though the next thing in the program is intendedto be a struct (or return a struct). Something like thiscan result in an surprising number of errors (possibly including a complaintabout an extraneous 'int' being ignored). All this for a single character!best to start at the top.

Dissecting an Error Message

Most messages from the compiler will consist of at least four things: the typeof message--warning or error--source code file in which the error appeared, andthe line of the error, and a brief description of what was wrong. Output fromg++ for the above program might look something like this (your results withother compilers may vary):foo.cc is the name of the file. 7 is the line number in question, and it isclear that this is an error. The brief message here is quite helpful becauseit says exactly what was wrong. Notice, however, that the message makes senseonly in the context of the program. It doesn't say which struct was missing asemicolon.
More cryptic was another error message from the same compilation attempt:'extraneous 'int' ignored'. It's up to the programmer to figure out exactlywhy it was extraneous. Notice again that this was an error caused by a problemearlier in the program, not on line 8, but earlier, when the struct lacked asemicolon terminator. Fortunately, it's pretty clear that the functiondefinition for foo was OK; this tells us that the error must have been causedsomewhere else in the program. In fact, it had to be earlier in theprogram--you won't get an error message that indicates a syntax error prior tothe line on which the error actually occurred.
This brings up another guiding principle of hunting down compiler errors: whenin doubt, look earlier in the program. Since syntax errors can havemysterious repercussions later, it's possible that the compiler was giving aline number that doesn't actually have a syntax error! Worse, many times, thecompiler won't be as friendly in telling you exactly what happened earlier inthe program. Even the first compiler error you get might be due to somethingseveral lines before the indicated warning.

Handling Cryptic or Bizarre Messages

There are several types of compiler errors that are especially frustrating.The first is the case of an undeclared variable that you swear you declared.Often times, you can actually point out exactly where the variable wasdeclared! The problem is often that the variable is simply misspelled.Unfortunately, this can be very hard to see since the mind typically reads whatit expects rather than what is actually there. Worse, there are other reasonswhy this could be a problem too--scoping issues for instance!
To sort through the possible problems, one trick I like to use is to go to theline of the supposedly undeclared variable and have my text editor perform asearch for the word under the cursor (alternatively, you could copy thevariable name and perform a search); this guarantees that if I spelled itincorrectly, it will not find a match for my search. This also keeps me fromhaving to type the word, which could result in my correctly spelling thevariable name.
A second cryptic message is the 'unexpected end of file'. What's going onhere? Why would the end of the file be 'unexpected'? Well, the key here is tothink like the compiler; if the end of the file is unexpected, then it must bethat it's waiting for something. What could it be waiting for? The answer isusually 'closure

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